In his book, Changes in the Land, William Cronon does an excellent job comparing and contrasting the New England landscape before and after the arrival of the English settlers in the seventeenth century. He does not simply describe the changing landscape, but gives an in depth analysis of how the Indians and the English influenced North American land and one another. With evidentiary support from both ecologists and historians, Cronon investigates the Indians’ lives and the abundance of the New England landscape before European invasion. He thoroughly describes, and often mocks, the European attempts to “bind the land” of Northeast America with fences and fields. Lastly, Cronon explains the significant transformation the New England landscape endured between 1600 and 1800 due to political and social conflicts between the Indians and the settlers. His book provides unbiased accounts of the logging, fishing, farming, and hunting done by both the Indians and the English, and how the contradicting lifestyles of these two people ended in tragedy. Changes in the Land not only touches on the ecological perspectives of this era, but the social and political controversies as well.
The majority of European travel accounts from America in the early 1600’s referenced the abundance of the plant and animal life. Colonists had never seen such wilderness, whose terrain was quite different than that of England. The spring spawning of fish such as the smelt, alewives, and sturgeon filled fresh water rivers with countless quantities of fish for the taking. The spring and fall m
igrations of the region’s birds had a similar effect, especially the semiannual flight of the passenger pigeon. Now an extinct species, the Europeans then “measured their numbers in ‘millions and millions’” and declared that these flocks had “neither beginning nor ending, length nor breadth, and were so thick [we] could see no Sun” (Cronon, 23). Although large flocks of other American birds existed as well, the colonists were most impressed with the availability of passenger pigeons. Cronon does not give ample detail on the remarkable numbers of New England passenger pigeons in the seventeenth century, nor does he mention why these birds were killed in such large quantities.
Further research from the Smithsonian reveals that the most traumatic slaughtering of these birds did not occur in the seventeenth century, but almost one hundred years later. Nevertheless, the population of passenger pigeons declined significantly during the 1600s. Such large flocks required large forests with many trees. As the new settlers cleared New England forests for farmland, the pigeons were forced to change their nesting sites and soon began to eat grain from local farms. Because the passenger pigeon caused immense problems for the farmers, settlers began to shoot them and use them as a source of meat. There were no laws limiting the number of birds that could be shot and for this reason, the passenger pigeon no longer exists today. For more information on the history of the passenger pigeon and the cause of its extinction, click here: http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/passpig.htm.
New England was also home to an astonishing number of deer, wolves, bear, beavers, and wild cats, whose existence kept many delicate ecological relationships perfectly balanced. There was enough foliage for the deer to eat and consequently, enough deer for the wolves to eat. The Indians understood these natural patterns and before the arrival of the colonists, did a decent job of keeping these ecological relationships in check. The Indians only killed what they needed to survive, minimally altering the landscape. However, the European descriptions from the seventeenth century of “open” and “easy to traverse” forests were not natural; the Indians actively burned the underbrush in the woods to facilitate their own travel.
The New England forests were somewhat of a “patchwork.” The southern
forests of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and the eastern fourth of Massachusetts were known as the “oak-chestnut” region while the northern forests of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine were referred to as the “northern hardwoods” region. The area between these two regions was known as the “zone of transition” and contained a mixture of these two groups (Cronon, 26-27). This diversity explained the range of soils, which determined which plants and animals lived where. The most astonishing tree to the European outsider was the white pine. The average height of a fully matured white pine could be well over one hundred feet, making it a valued commodity for ship mast construction. As a conifer, the economic importance of the white pine was great, especially since there was an immense shortage of wood back home in England. To learn the economic importance of other conifers in the seventeenth century, click here: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132725/conifer/34714/Economic-importance#ref=ref410919. While the English viewed all aspects of North American forests as “commodities,” the Indians saw them as means of survival. The English way of life varied dramatically from that of the Indian, the primary reason behind the miscommunication and lack of understanding between the natives and the colonists.
It is important to understand the novelty of the New England frontier and natives to a European colonist in the seventeenth century. To generalize the analysis of Cronon, the Indians and the settlers viewed life and its many facets with almost polar opposite approaches. Whether it was the southern, more agricultural Indians or the northern Indians known to hunt, the settlers “misconstrued the supposed ‘poverty’ of the Indians” (Cronon, 34). In both the north and the south of New England, the Indians lived peacefully before the arrival of Europeans. They were a nomadic people who did not value physical possessions, accepted the hardships of the winter months, and maintained a symbiotic relationship with the environment. In all of New England, “the mobility of village sites and the shift between various subsistence bases reduced potential strains on any particular segment of the ecosystem, keeping the overall human burden low,” although their use of agriculture made the southern Indians more influential on the condition of their environment (Cronon, 48).
To the Indians, land was just land. They had no understanding of fences, the right to property, money, or epidemic disease. Tribes divided daily chores by gender. For example, the men would hunt and the women would prepare the meat. English settlers saw the idleness of men home from a hunt, and assumed women did the majority of the work. Because English settlers believed Indian men did not use their land to its full potential, justification for appropriating native lands was quickly achieved. Most notable for his reasoning behind acquiring Indian lands free of charge was Pilgrim leader John Winthrop. His name appears only one time in Cronon’s book therefore a full account of his reign as an important Pilgrim leader fails to exist. His four justifications
for taking Native American lands were the following: 1) Indians wandered about; they did not occupy the land on a consistent basis and did not enclose it or exercise dominion over it 2) A perception of plenty; there was clearly enough land for “them and us” 3) The land was empty, free of any sort of permanent settlements or farms 4) The natives “invited” the settlers to come (Fenn, Lecture. 10/20/2008). For a full biography of John Winthrop, click here: http://search.eb.com/eb/art-33783/John-Winthrop-detail-of-an-oil-painting-school-of-Sir?articleTypeId=1.
Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the English settlers had a dramatic effect on the New England landscape. Their permanent settlements forced the Indians onto “less and less desirable agricultural lands.” Vast “areas particularly of southern New England were devoid of animals which had once been common” and “grazing animals . . . constituted a heavier burden on New England plants and soil” (Cronon, 159). Colonial “presence brought hundreds of miles of fences,” while the effects of severe deforestation changed the New England landscape forever. Cronon acknowledges the fact that it is almost impossible to prove that European invasion was the chief agent of environmental change, but they did have a significant effect. The American Indian population declined dramatically upon the arrival of English settlers, disease being the primary reason. Their incompatible ways of life took a toll on the environment. Both the Indians and the English influenced the land and each other, but it is safe to say that with their advanced technology, foreign animals and disease, concept of property rights and money, and their sheer determination to leave England for whatever reason made the English settlers an unbeatable enemy, both by the Indians and the land.
Eastern White Pine. Coastal Tree and Landscapes, Inc. 20 Oct. 2008
Elizabeth Fenn, “The Ecological Encounter Between Europeans and Native Americans,” lecture to History 111A, Duke University, October 20, 2008.
"The Passenger Pigeon." Encyclopedia Smithsonian. Smithsonian. 27 Oct. 2008.
The Passenger Pigeon. The Most Recent Animal Extinctions. 20 Oct. 2008
Van Dyck, Sir Anthony. John Winthrop. American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts.
igrations of the region’s birds had a similar effect, especially the semiannual flight of the passenger pigeon. Now an extinct species, the Europeans then “measured their numbers in ‘millions and millions’” and declared that these flocks had “neither beginning nor ending, length nor breadth, and were so thick [we] could see no Sun” (Cronon, 23). Although large flocks of other American birds existed as well, the colonists were most impressed with the availability of passenger pigeons. Cronon does not give ample detail on the remarkable numbers of New England passenger pigeons in the seventeenth century, nor does he mention why these birds were killed in such large quantities.Further research from the Smithsonian reveals that the most traumatic slaughtering of these birds did not occur in the seventeenth century, but almost one hundred years later. Nevertheless, the population of passenger pigeons declined significantly during the 1600s. Such large flocks required large forests with many trees. As the new settlers cleared New England forests for farmland, the pigeons were forced to change their nesting sites and soon began to eat grain from local farms. Because the passenger pigeon caused immense problems for the farmers, settlers began to shoot them and use them as a source of meat. There were no laws limiting the number of birds that could be shot and for this reason, the passenger pigeon no longer exists today. For more information on the history of the passenger pigeon and the cause of its extinction, click here: http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/passpig.htm.
New England was also home to an astonishing number of deer, wolves, bear, beavers, and wild cats, whose existence kept many delicate ecological relationships perfectly balanced. There was enough foliage for the deer to eat and consequently, enough deer for the wolves to eat. The Indians understood these natural patterns and before the arrival of the colonists, did a decent job of keeping these ecological relationships in check. The Indians only killed what they needed to survive, minimally altering the landscape. However, the European descriptions from the seventeenth century of “open” and “easy to traverse” forests were not natural; the Indians actively burned the underbrush in the woods to facilitate their own travel.
The New England forests were somewhat of a “patchwork.” The southern
forests of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and the eastern fourth of Massachusetts were known as the “oak-chestnut” region while the northern forests of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine were referred to as the “northern hardwoods” region. The area between these two regions was known as the “zone of transition” and contained a mixture of these two groups (Cronon, 26-27). This diversity explained the range of soils, which determined which plants and animals lived where. The most astonishing tree to the European outsider was the white pine. The average height of a fully matured white pine could be well over one hundred feet, making it a valued commodity for ship mast construction. As a conifer, the economic importance of the white pine was great, especially since there was an immense shortage of wood back home in England. To learn the economic importance of other conifers in the seventeenth century, click here: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132725/conifer/34714/Economic-importance#ref=ref410919. While the English viewed all aspects of North American forests as “commodities,” the Indians saw them as means of survival. The English way of life varied dramatically from that of the Indian, the primary reason behind the miscommunication and lack of understanding between the natives and the colonists.It is important to understand the novelty of the New England frontier and natives to a European colonist in the seventeenth century. To generalize the analysis of Cronon, the Indians and the settlers viewed life and its many facets with almost polar opposite approaches. Whether it was the southern, more agricultural Indians or the northern Indians known to hunt, the settlers “misconstrued the supposed ‘poverty’ of the Indians” (Cronon, 34). In both the north and the south of New England, the Indians lived peacefully before the arrival of Europeans. They were a nomadic people who did not value physical possessions, accepted the hardships of the winter months, and maintained a symbiotic relationship with the environment. In all of New England, “the mobility of village sites and the shift between various subsistence bases reduced potential strains on any particular segment of the ecosystem, keeping the overall human burden low,” although their use of agriculture made the southern Indians more influential on the condition of their environment (Cronon, 48).
To the Indians, land was just land. They had no understanding of fences, the right to property, money, or epidemic disease. Tribes divided daily chores by gender. For example, the men would hunt and the women would prepare the meat. English settlers saw the idleness of men home from a hunt, and assumed women did the majority of the work. Because English settlers believed Indian men did not use their land to its full potential, justification for appropriating native lands was quickly achieved. Most notable for his reasoning behind acquiring Indian lands free of charge was Pilgrim leader John Winthrop. His name appears only one time in Cronon’s book therefore a full account of his reign as an important Pilgrim leader fails to exist. His four justifications
for taking Native American lands were the following: 1) Indians wandered about; they did not occupy the land on a consistent basis and did not enclose it or exercise dominion over it 2) A perception of plenty; there was clearly enough land for “them and us” 3) The land was empty, free of any sort of permanent settlements or farms 4) The natives “invited” the settlers to come (Fenn, Lecture. 10/20/2008). For a full biography of John Winthrop, click here: http://search.eb.com/eb/art-33783/John-Winthrop-detail-of-an-oil-painting-school-of-Sir?articleTypeId=1.Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the English settlers had a dramatic effect on the New England landscape. Their permanent settlements forced the Indians onto “less and less desirable agricultural lands.” Vast “areas particularly of southern New England were devoid of animals which had once been common” and “grazing animals . . . constituted a heavier burden on New England plants and soil” (Cronon, 159). Colonial “presence brought hundreds of miles of fences,” while the effects of severe deforestation changed the New England landscape forever. Cronon acknowledges the fact that it is almost impossible to prove that European invasion was the chief agent of environmental change, but they did have a significant effect. The American Indian population declined dramatically upon the arrival of English settlers, disease being the primary reason. Their incompatible ways of life took a toll on the environment. Both the Indians and the English influenced the land and each other, but it is safe to say that with their advanced technology, foreign animals and disease, concept of property rights and money, and their sheer determination to leave England for whatever reason made the English settlers an unbeatable enemy, both by the Indians and the land.
Works Cited
Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Canada: HarperCollins, 1983.Eastern White Pine. Coastal Tree and Landscapes, Inc. 20 Oct. 2008
Elizabeth Fenn, “The Ecological Encounter Between Europeans and Native Americans,” lecture to History 111A, Duke University, October 20, 2008.
"The Passenger Pigeon." Encyclopedia Smithsonian. Smithsonian. 27 Oct. 2008
The Passenger Pigeon. The Most Recent Animal Extinctions. 20 Oct. 2008
Van Dyck, Sir Anthony. John Winthrop. American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts.
